Add support for sentry_extra_data in exceptions

What does this MR do?

This allows exceptions to provide structured data to sentry in an extensible manner. This change is fully backwards compatible with our existing exceptions tracking calls, but also allows exceptions to provide data to be added to the extra information so it can be used to track causes without this information needing to be added to the message.

Does this MR meet the acceptance criteria?

Conformity

• Changelog entry for user-facing changes, or community contribution. Check the link for other scenarios.
• Documentation created/updated or follow-up review issue created
• Code review guidelines
• Merge request performance guidelines
• Style guides
• Database guides
• Separation of EE specific content

Performance and Testing

• Review and add/update tests for this feature/bug. Consider all test levels. See the Test Planning Process.
• Tested in all supported browsers

Proposed in relation to: https://gitlab.com/gitlab-org/gitlab-ee/merge_requests/14656#note_204422844